giáo trình hình thái học tiếng anh – english morphology

Ngày đăng: 05/01/2015, 00:02

1 ĐẠI HỌC QUỐC GIA TP HỒ CHÍ MINH TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC KHOA HỌC XÃ HỘI VÀ NHÂN VĂN  Giáo trình Tô Minh Thanh NHÀ XUẤT BẢN ĐẠI HỌC QUỐC GIA TP HỒ CHÍ MINH – 2003 3 LỜI NÓI ĐẦU Giáo trình Hình thái học tiếng Anh được hình thành dựa trên tư liệu đã được giảng dạy trong thời gian qua cho sinh viên chuyên ngữ của Khoa Ngữ văn Anh, Trường Đại học Khoa học Xã hội và Nhân văn – Đại học Quốc gia Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh. Giáo trình này được biên soạn nhằm trang bò cho sinh viên cách tiếp cận mang tính thực hành môn học đầy tính lý thuyết này. Giáo trình Hình thái học tiếng Anh trình bày một cách có hệ thống một số khái niệm cơ bản về hình thái học và nhiều kiểu phân tích từ vựng tiếng Anh. Bên cạnh đó, giáo trình này cũng chú ý đến cả kết cấu nội tại lẫn ý nghóa biểu đạt của chúng. Nói một cách khác, tài liệu này có liên quan tới:  Hình vò, tha hình vò, từ vựng và các tiểu loại của chúng trong tiếng Anh hiện đại;  Các quy trình hình thành và các quy tắc phân tích từ vựng tiếng Anh. Trong quá trình biên soạn giáo trình này chúng tôi đã tham khảo và trích dẫn nhiều tư liệu đã được công bố, đặc biệt là của Arnold (1986), Jackson (1980) và Stageberg (1965). Có thể nói, mục tiêu duy nhất của chúng tôi khi biên soạn giáo trình này là nhằm cung cấp cho sinh viên một lượng thông tin cần thiết về lónh vực thú vò và thật sự có ích lợi này dưới sức ép của một thời lượng hết sức khiêm tốn vẫn thường dành cho môn Hình thái học tiếng Anh. Chúng tôi xin được thể hiện lòng biết ơn chân thành đối với Tiến só Nguyễn Tiến Hùng về những đóng góp và phê bình phản biện tích cực của ông dành cho giáo trình này. Đây là lần đầu tiên giáo trình này được xuất bản, hẳn không tránh khỏi sai sót. Chúng tôi mong nhận được nhiều ý kiến đóng góp của bạn đọc để giáo trình ngày càng hoàn thiện hơn. Ý kiến đóng góp xin gửi về: Hội đồng Khoa học và Đào tạo Khoa Ngữ văn Anh, Trường Đại học Khoa học Xã hội và Nhân văn – Đại học Quốc gia Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh, 10-12 Đinh Tiên Hoàng, Q.1, điện thoại: 8243328. Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh, ngày 30 tháng 7 năm 2003. Tô Minh Thanh 5 CONTENTS Preface 3 Table of notational symbols 7 Unit one: MORPHEMES 9 1. Definition – Characteristics 9 2. How to distinguish Morphemes from Phonemes, Syllables and Words? 9 3. Classification of Morphemes 11 3.1. Free morphemes vs. Bound morphemes 11 3.2. Bases (also called Roots) vs. Affixes 12 4. Variations of Morphemes — Allomorphs 14 4.1. Definition 14 4.2. Selection of Allomorphs: 14 4.3. Types of Allomorphs 15 EXERCISES 16 EXTRA READING 36 Unit two: DERIVATION AND INFLECTION 41 1. Derivation 41 1.1. Definition 41 1.2. Types of Derivational Affixes 41 1.3. Morphological rules 41 2. Inflection 45 2.1. Definition 45 2.2. Various Kinds of Inflection 45 3. How to distinguish Derivation from Inflection 46 3.1. Derivation 46 3.2. Inflection 47 EXERCISES 47 Unit three: IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENTS IN MORPHOLOGY 65 1. Definition 65 2. Some Recommendations on IC division 66 3. Diagram 66 EXERCISES 67 6 Unit four: WORDS 89 1. Definition 89 2. Characteristics 89 2.1. Indivisibility 89 2.2. Internal stability and Positional mobility 90 3. Classification 91 3.1. Classification of words according to their structure: 91 3.2. Classification of words according to their word-formation processes: coinage, borrowing, compounding, blending, clipping, acronymy, conversion, affixation and back-formation. 94 EXERCISES 109 EXTRA READING 121 Answer keys 123 Bibliography 140 7 NOTATIONAL SYMBOLS Most of the symbols used in this text follow conventions, but since conventions vary, the following list indicates the meanings assigned to them here. n = noun [U] = uncountable [C] = countable pl = plural sing = singular adj = adjective adv = adverb prep = preposition v = verb phr v = phrasal verb sth = something sb = somebody mono-trans = mono-transitive verb complex trans = complex transitive verb etc = et cetera meaning “and other similar things” or “and so on” fig = figurative esp = especially usu = usually fml = formal infml = informal derog = derogatory, insulting attrib = attributive pred = predicative Brit = British abbr = abbreviated I = intransitive verb Ipr = intransitive verb + prepositional phrase Ip = intransitive verb + adverbial particle La = linking verb + adjective (phrase) Tn = transitive verb + noun (phrase) Tn.pr = transitive verb + noun (phrase) + prepositional phrase Tn.p = transitive verb + noun (phrase) + adverbial particle Cn.t = complex transitive verb + noun (phrase) + to-infinitive phrase 9 UNIT ONE MORPHEMES 1. DEFINITION – CHARACTERISTICS What is a morpheme? • ‘A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in a language.’ [Richards, Platt & Weber, 1987: 183] • ‘A morpheme is a short segment of language that meets three criteria:  It is a word or part of a word that has meaning.  It cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts without violation of its meaning or without meaningless remainders.  It recurs in different verbal environments with a relatively stable meaning.’ [Stageberg, 1965: 85] Ex.1: The English word unkind consists of two morphemes: the base kind the lexical meaning of which is ‘friendly and thoughtful to others’ and the prefix un– the lexical meaning of which is ‘not’; the English word talks consists of two morphemes: the base talk the lexical meaning of which is ‘say something’ and the suffix –s, which has no lexical meaning and which is used to show that the verb talks is in the third person singular present-tense form. In other words, we can recognize a morpheme by either its lexical or its grammatical meaning. Ex.2: Straight is an English adjective meaning ‘without a bend or curve’. By dividing straight, we get smaller meaningful units of trait /tre1t/, rate /re1t/and ate/e1t/; but their meanings violate the meaning of straight. We also get the meaningless remainders: /s–/, /st–/ and /str–/. Therefore, straight must be considered a morpheme, the smallest meaningful unit in English. Ex.3: Bright means ‘light’, and brighten means ‘make light’. This leads us to conclude that –en means ‘make’. We also know that –en recurs with a stable meaning in words like cheapen, darken, deepen, soften, stiffen, etc. Therefore, –en must be considered a morpheme. 2. HOW TO DISTINGUISH MORPHEMES FROM PHONEMES, SYLLABLES AND WORDS? 2.1. MORPHEMES vs. PHONEMES A morpheme differs from a phoneme in that the former has meaning whereas the latter does not. Although phonemes have no meaning, they have distinctive features that help to distinguish meaning. 10 Ex.1: The initial consonant of bitch is [− aspirated] while that of pitch is [+ aspirated]. Ex.2: The vowel of pin is [+ close] and thus [− open] while that of pan is [+ open] and thus [− close]. A morpheme may consist of only a single phoneme like the /–z/ in goes. But the phoneme /z/ and this morpheme are by no means identical. The phoneme /z/ occurs many times where it has nothing to do with this morpheme. For example, zoo /zu:/ and rose /r6υz/ both contain /z/ but the /z/ here has nothing to do with the morpheme realized as /–z/ in goes. Morphemes are generally short sequences of phonemes: the morpheme {of} consists of two phonemes — / 4 / and / v /. Most English morphemes are intermediate in size between {of} and {strange} and consist of about two to six phonemes. 2.2. MORPHEMES vs. SYLLABLES A morpheme happens to be identical to a syllable, e.g. the morpheme {strange} and the syllable /stre1nd2/; and so are many English morphemes. However, any matches between morphemes and syllables are fortuitous. Many poly-syllabic words are mono-morphemic. E.g. lion / ’la I 6n /: two syllables – one morpheme crocodile / ’kr4k6da1l /: three syllables – one morpheme Connecticut / k6’net1k6t /: four syllables – one morpheme On the contrary, both / g6υ / and /–z/ in goes / g6υz / are morphemes, though altogether they are but a single syllable. That is, goes is mono-syllabic but poly-morphemic. Briefly, in some cases a morpheme may consist of one syllable or several whole syllables. In other cases, it is only part of a syllable. In fact, to form a morpheme, some phonemes are usually combined together without any regard to their status as syllables. In English, a morpheme is not identical with a syllable. The syllable is a phonological unit whereas the morpheme is the basic unit in morphology. 2.3. MORPHEMES vs. WORDS Words are made up of morphemes. In other words, morphemes are the constituents of words. A word may be composed of one or more morphemes: 11 One morpheme: boy, desire Two morphemes: boy + –ish, desir(e) + –able Three morphemes: boy + –ish + –ness, desir(e) + –abil + –ity Four morphemes: gentle + man + –li + –ness un– + desir(e) + –abil– + –ity More than four morphemes: un– + gentle + man + –li + –ness anti– + dis– + establish + –ment + –ari + –an + –ism 3. CLASSIFICATION OF MORPHEMES It is always found that morphemes can be grouped into certain classes, each with a characteristic distribution. There are two basic classes of morphemes: free morphemes and bound morphemes. Affixes are almost always bound whereas bases can be either free or bound. 3.1. BOUND MORPHEMES vs. FREE MORPHEMES 3.1.1. FREE MORPHEMES • A free morpheme is ‘one that can be uttered alone with meaning’. [Stageberg, 1965: 87] • A free morpheme ‘can be used on its own’. [Richards, Platt & Weber, 1987: 31] • Free morphemes ‘may stand alone as words in their own right, as well as enter into the structure of other words’. [Jackson, 1980: 53] E.g. Drink is a free morpheme which occurs as a word on its own and as a free base in drinkable, undrinkable, drinking-water, drinking-fountain, etc. 3.1.2. BOUND MORPHEMES • A bound morpheme ‘cannot be uttered alone with meaning. It is always annexed to one or more morphemes to form a word’. [Stageberg, 1965: 87] • A bound morpheme ‘is never used alone but must be used with another morpheme’. [Richards, Platt & Weber, 1987: 31] • Bound morphemes ‘may occur only if they combine with another morpheme’. [Jackson, 1980: 53] 12 E.g. the English suffix –ing /–17/ must be used after a verb form: writing, living, driving, etc. 3.2. BASES (or ROOTS ) vs. AFFIXES 3.2.1. A BASE (also called A ROOT ) is ‘that morpheme in a word that has the principal meaning’ [Stageberg, 1965: 87-88]. It is the central morpheme, the basic part of a word. There are two kinds of bases: A FREE BASE is a base ‘which may be a word on its own right once the other morphemes have been stripped away’ [Jackson, 1980: 53]. E.g. break in unbreakable, act in deactivated, friend in friendship, etc. A BOUND BASE is a base (i.e. it is the basic part of a word and has the principal meaning) which can never occur on its own but can only be joined to other bound morphemes. E.g. The bound base of audience, audible, audition, auditory, auditorium, etc. is audi–; that of suicide, patricide, matricide, infanticide, etc. is –cide; and that of suspender, pendant, pendulum, etc. is –pend or pend–. 3.2.2. AN AFFIX is a morpheme (usually a bound morpheme) ‘that occurs before or behind a base’ [Stageberg, 1965: 87]. 3.2.2.1. Classified according to their POSITION in words, affixes have three main subclasses: • PREFIXES ‘occur before a base’ [Stageberg, 1965: 91] as in import, prefix, reconsider, unkind, understate, over-react, etc. • SUFFIXES ‘occur after a base’ [Stageberg, 1965: 92] as in shrinkage, noisy, quickly, nails, dreamed, mouse-like, etc. • INFIXES are inserted within words, e.g. the infix –um–in Tagalog, which shows that a verb is in the past tense: sulat (to write)  sumulat (wrote). Affixes may be added directly to bases or to constructions consisting of a base plus one or more (either free or bound) morphemes. Thus we have: work + –s = works worker + –s = workers workshop + –s = workshops 3.2.2.2. Classified according to their FUNCTION in words, affixes have two main subclasses: • INFLECTIONAL AFFIXES, ‘which are always suffixes in English, perform a grammatical function; they are representatives of grammatical categories’. 13 [Jackson, 1980: 53] The only eight inflectional suffixes in English are:  the noun plural morpheme {–S 1 }: book–s, apple–s, box–es, etc.  the noun possessive morpheme {–S 2 }: man–‘s, girl–‘s, students–‘, Alice–‘s, etc.  the verb third person singular present tense morpheme {–S 3 }: walk–s, find–s, mix–es, etc.  the verb present participle morpheme {–ing 1 }: play–ing, typ(e)–ing, dig(g)–ing, etc.  the verb past simple morpheme {–D 1 }: flow–ed, work–ed, creat(e)–ed, drank, broke, thought, show–ed, etc.  the verb past participle morpheme{–D 2 }: flow–ed, work–ed, creat(e)–ed, drunk, broken, thought, show–n, etc.  the adjective or adverb comparative morpheme {–er 1 }: small–er, saf(e)–er, thinn–er, long–er, fast–er, hard–er, etc.  the adjective or adverb superlative morpheme {–est 1 }: small–est, saf(e)– est, thinn–est, long–est, fast–est, hard–est, etc. • DERIVATIONAL AFFIXES, ‘which may be prefixes or suffixes in English, have a lexical function; they create new words out of existing words or morphemes by their addition’. [Jackson, 1980: 53] Derivational affixes may be of two kinds:  Class-changing derivational affixes change the word class of the word to which they are attached: –al added to nation makes an adjective out of a noun.  Class-maintaining derivational affixes do not change the word class of the word to which they are attached. Derivational prefixes are usually class-maintaining: re–mark, dis–enthrone, un–refined, etc. There is not usually more than one prefix in a word in English and from what was said in the previous paragraphs, it is clear that English prefixes are always derivational. There is never more than one inflectional suffix in English words and it always comes last. A number of derivational suffixes may, however, occur. Derivational suffixes need not close off a word; that is, after a derivational suffix one can sometimes add another derivational suffix and can […]… transport goods by lorry – portage n [U] (cost of) carrying goods 10 The bound base –rupt/ rupt– means ‘break’ – rupture n [U, C] (fml) (instance of) breaking apart: the rupture of a blood-vessel, seed-pod, membrane – erupt v [I] (of a volcano) break out: This volcano has erupted twice this year – abrupt adj (of speech) not smooth, disconnected, disjoined: short and abrupt sentences – corrupt adj (of languages,… teacher dictate a letter the class – diction n [U] style or manner of speaking or (sometimes) writing: Clarity of diction is visual for a public speaker – dictum n (pl ∼s or –ta /–t6/) saying; maxim: ‘Knowledge is power’ is a well-known dictum – dictionary n [C] book the lists and explains the words of a language: an English dictionary 3 The bound base –gress means ‘go’ – regress v [I, Ipr] ∼ (sth) (fml)… state or form – regressive adj making a continuous backward movement – regression n [U] moving backward – progress /’pr6υgres/n [U] onward or forward movement: The walkers were making slow progress up the rocky path 25 – progress /pr6’gres/ v [I] cause (sth) to move forward: The work is progressing steadily – progressive /pr6’gres1v/ adj making a continuous forward movement: a progressive step – progression… leaders, writers, paintings, ideals, etc – visible adj 24 [Tn] re-examine sth in order to improve or correct it: revise a manuscript before publication ∼ (to sb/sth) that can be seen, in sight: The hills were barely visible through the mist – visibility n [U] fact or state of being seen – visual adj concerned with or used in seeing: visual images, effects, etc – audio-visual adj using both sight and sound:… class-changing verb-forming suffix ‘−ation’ is a derivational class-changing noun-forming suffix This morphemic analysis proves that (3) is an English word The items numbered (1) and (2) are not because their constituents are not arranged in the above-mentioned order The arrangements of the constituents in (1) and (2) break all the rules concerning the internal stability and uninterruptability of English words… living by teaching 31 (2)c The derivational class-changing adjective-forming morpheme {−ing3}: a very exciting film; you can’t expect a more charming companion than he (3)a The derivational class-changing adverb-forming morpheme {−ly1}: complete (adj.) + −ly → completely (adv.); happy (adj.) + −ly → happily (adv.) (3)b The derivational class-changing adjective-forming morpheme {−ly2}: coward (n.) + −ly… (audio-)visual, supervise, etc regress 4 –vise = ‘see’ recur 23 6 inspect 7 oppose 8 rodent 9 portable 10 rupture 11 annual 12 bigamy NOTES: 1 The bound base –vise/ vis– means ‘see’ – revise v – devise v [Tn] think out (a plan, a system, a tool, etc); invent: devise a scheme for redeveloping the city center – vision n [U] power of seeing, sight: have a perfect vision, poor, blurred, etc vision – visionary… containing errors or changes: a corrupt manuscript – interrupt v [Tn] break the continuity of sth temporarily: Trade between the two countries was interrupted by the war 11 The bound base ann– means ‘year’ – annual adj yearly – annuity /6‘nju:6t1/ n [C] fixed sum of money paid to sb yearly – annuitant /6‘nju:6t6nt/ n [C] person who receives an annuity – anniversary n [C] yearly return of the date of… an English word The order of morphemes in English words is: 29 derivational prefix − base − derivational suffix(es) − inflectional suffix Analysing (3) we find out that the following morphemes are in correct order: ‘de−’ is a prefix meaning ‘doing the opposite of’ ‘nation’ is the free base, which is a noun ‘−al’ is a derivational class-changing adjective-forming suffix ‘−ize’ is a derivational class-changing… Swimming and water-skiing are both aquatic sports 5 The bound base mor(t)– means ‘death’ or ‘dead’ – mortuary /‘m0:t~6r1/ n [C] room or building (e.g part of a hospital) in which dead bodies are kept before being buried or cremated adj – mortal adj [attrib] (fml) of mortuary rites death burial: that must be die; fatal; causing death: a mortal wound/ injury n – immortal /‘m0:tl/ adj n – moribund /‘m4r1b∧nd/. ĐẦU Giáo trình Hình thái học tiếng Anh được hình thành dựa trên tư liệu đã được giảng dạy trong thời gian qua cho sinh viên chuyên ngữ của Khoa Ngữ văn Anh, Trường Đại học Khoa học Xã hội.  Hình vò, tha hình vò, từ vựng và các tiểu loại của chúng trong tiếng Anh hiện đại;  Các quy trình hình thành và các quy tắc phân tích từ vựng tiếng Anh. Trong quá trình biên soạn giáo trình. Giáo trình Hình thái học tiếng Anh trình bày một cách có hệ thống một số khái niệm cơ bản về hình thái học và nhiều kiểu phân tích từ vựng tiếng Anh. Bên cạnh đó, giáo trình này cũng chú ý đến

Source: https://evbn.org
Category: Đào Tạo